The end of the 18th century was a tragic time for Poland. There were hopes that the country would flourish under the enlightened rule of King Stanislas Augustus Poniatowski. However, the three partitioning powers, Russia, Austria and Prussia, divided the Polish lands between themselves in 1772, 1793 and 1795. Despite the trauma of the first partition, the May 3 Constitution was passed in 1791, the first constitution in Europe and the second in the world.

After the last partition, Poland disappeared from the map as an independent state. In 1807, under the Treaty of Tilsit, Napoleon founded the Duchy of Warsaw. The name did not refer to Poland in order not to irritate the partitioning powers. The duchy was a small state, a token award of sorts for those Poles who contributed to Napoleon's numerous victories. The duchy had six departments modeled after those in France and a constitution that abolished serfdom and introduced Napoleon's civil code. The first Sejm, or parliament, convened in 1809.

As the state coffers were empty, the Chamber of Deputies approved taxes earmarked for the development of the military and education. The last Polish king's nephew, prince Józef Poniatowski, became minister of war. Many new schools were established at that time, including the Chamber of Public Education. Its outstanding lecturers including Stanisław Staszic and Samuel Bogumił Linde. Various periodicals also appeared, including Pamiętnik Warszawski and Tygodnik Polski.

The Duchy of Warsaw soon faced a great danger as an Austrian army clashed with Poles under the command of Józef Poniatowski at Raszyn near Warsaw. The Poles emerged victorious.

Meanwhile, Napoleon defeated the Austrians at Wagram. Poles made a great contribution to his success. To reward their valor, Napoleon expanded the Duchy of Warsaw to include Western Galicia and a part of the Zamość lands. In 1812, Napoleon set off into the depth of Russia, an expedition that was to prove disastrous.

The three partitioning powers, refusing to agree to a reborn Poland, joined forces in fear that Napoleon would restore Poland to its former borders. That led to the grisly battle of Leipzig in 1813, called the battle of nations, that ended in Napoleon's defeat. Prince Józef, promoted by Napoleon to the position of Marshal of France, firmly stood by the emperor. France lost many soldiers. So Napoleon decided to retreat to France to enlist new men for his army.

He ordered Prince Józef to keep at a distance from the French and to fend the enemy off. The French army intended to cross a bridge over the Elster River and then burn the bridge. When Prince Józef arrived there with his soldiers, he saw only charred remains. Prussians soldiers were nearby. The prince threw himself with his horse into the river, where he drowned as he was being fired on by the Prussians.

For Poland, the future had more uprisings and dramas in store. The first was the decision at the Vienna Congress of 1815 to dissolve the Duchy of Warsaw.
Danuta Szmit-Zawierucha